Про проєкт та контакти редакції

3D Лабораторія Фізики, Хімії та Біології (physics.sheua.com) є двомовним інтерактивним тривимірним підручником і віртуальним практикумом, створеним для наочного вивчення фундаментальних законів природи у школах, ліцеях та університетах.

Структура курсу (106 інтерактивних 3D-дослідів)

• Фізика (46 симуляцій): класична механіка, закони збереження імпульсу й енергії, гідродинаміка, молекулярно-кінетична теорія і термодинаміка, хвильова та геометрична оптика, електромагнетизм, атомна і квантова фізика.
• Хімія (40 симуляцій): квантові s-, p-, d-орбіталі, гібридизація і геометрія молекул ГЕПВО, кристалічні ґратки, хімічна кінетика, рівновага Ле Шательє, кислотно-основне титрування, буферні розчини, гальванічні елементи, електроліз та органічні механізми реакцій.
• Біологія та біофізика (20 симуляцій): будова еукаріотичної клітини, хеміосмотичний синтез АТФ у мітохондрії, мітоз і мейоз із кросинговером, реплікація ДНК, ПЛР, редагування геному CRISPR-Cas9, гель-електрофорез, бактеріофаг Т4, рибосомна трансляція, популяційна генетика Гарді-Вайнберга, мембранний насос, потенціал дії нейрона, хімічний синапс, оптика ока людини, скорочення саркомера, гемодинаміка Пуазейля, фотосинтез, кооперативність гемоглобіну та екологічна модель Лотки-Вольтерри.

Методика навчання

Кожен параграф побудований за триступеневим дослідницьким циклом: спочатку учень формулює гіпотезу, відповідаючи на проблемне запитання, далі перевіряє її в інтерактивній тривимірній установці зі змінними параметрами, векторами сил і живою осцилограмою, і наприкінці отримує строге математичне виведення з підстановкою власних чисел у формули KaTeX.

Теоретичні розділи підручника на sheua.com

На кореневому порталі sheua.com опубліковано вісім тематичних розділів із виведенням рівнянь, довідниковими таблицями та роз'заними задачами:

• Розділ I. Класична механіка: закони збереження імпульсу й енергії та динаміка обертання
• Розділ II. Механіка рідин і газів та молекулярна термодинаміка: від закону Архімеда до циклу Карно
• Розділ III. Хвильова оптика, електромагнетизм і квантова фізика: поля, хвилі та будова атома
• Розділ IV. Квантова хімія та будова речовини: електронні орбіталі, гібридизація ГЕПВО і кристалічні ґратки
• Розділ V. Фізична хімія, кінетика та електрохімія: вільна енергія Гіббса, рівновага, pH і рівняння Нернста
• Розділ VI. Молекулярна біологія клітини і генетика: біоенергетика АТФ, поділ клітини, ДНК, ПЛР та CRISPR-Cas9
• Розділ VII. Біофізика живих систем: мембранний потенціал, імпульс нейрона, оптика ока та гемодинаміка
• Розділ VIII. Довідник фізичних сталих CODATA, одиниць системи СІ та похибок лабораторних вимірювань

Контактна інформація

Маєте пропозиції щодо нових лабораторних робіт, помітили неточність або бажаєте співпрацювати? Зв'яжіться з нами:

• Електронна пошта редакції: contact@sheua.com
• Вебсайт: https://physics.sheua.com
• Українська версія практикуму: https://physics.sheua.com/uk/

About the Project & Contact Information

3D Physics, Chemistry & Biology Lab (physics.sheua.com) is an open-access bilingual interactive 3D textbook and virtual laboratory designed for secondary school students, university undergraduates, and science educators.

Curriculum Overview (106 Interactive 3D Simulations)

• Physics (46 Experiments): Classical mechanics, conservation laws, fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, wave and geometric optics, electromagnetism, and quantum physics.
• Chemistry (40 Experiments): Atomic and molecular orbitals, VSEPR geometry, crystal lattices, chemical kinetics, Le Chatelier equilibrium, pH titration, buffers, electrochemistry, and organic reaction mechanisms.
• Biology & Biophysics (20 Experiments): Eukaryotic cell organelles, mitochondrial ATP synthase, mitosis, meiosis and crossing-over, DNA replication, PCR thermal cycling, CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, gel electrophoresis, bacteriophage T4, ribosomal translation, Hardy-Weinberg genetics, membrane ion pumps, Hodgkin-Huxley action potentials, chemical synapse neurotransmission, human eye optics, muscle sarcomere mechanics, Poiseuille hemodynamics, photosynthesis, hemoglobin cooperativity, and Lotka-Volterra ecology.

Complete Directory of 106 Textbook Chapters (English)

Direct links to all 106 interactive 3D simulations and theoretical chapters:

• § 1. Conservation of Linear Momentum · Elastic & inelastic collision of spheres, momentum exchange
• § 2. Motion of a Body on an Inclined Plane · Resolution of gravity, normal force N, and friction angle
• § 3. Simple & Spring Pendulums · Comparison of periods T = 2π√(L/g) and T = 2π√(m/k)
• § 4. Projectile Launched at an Angle to the Horizontal · Vacuum parabola vs. ballistic trajectory with air drag
• § 5. Newton's Cradle · Transmission of momentum and energy through a chain of steel spheres
• § 6. Centripetal Acceleration & Turning Dynamics · Centripetal acceleration a = ω²R and radial skidding threshold
• § 7. Archimedes' Principle & Flotation Conditions · Buoyant force F_A = ρgV and equilibrium at the waterline
• § 8. Ideal Gas Under a Piston (Ideal Gas Law) · Ideal gas law PV = νRT and thermal motion of molecules
• § 9. Light Wavefront & Huygens–Fresnel Principle · Huygens' secondary spherical wavelets and plane wavefront refraction
• § 10. Interference of Light Wavefronts (Young's Double-Slit) · Superposition of two spherical light wavefronts, maxima & minima
• § 11. Dispersion of Light & Spectrum Formation in a Prism · Wavelength dependence of refractive index n(λ) and spectral splitting
• § 12. Electromagnetic Light Wave (E, B & Poynting Vector) · Mutually perpendicular fields E ⊥ B, phase wavefront, and light polarization
• § 13. Bernoulli's Equation & Venturi Effect · Relation between flow speed and static pressure in a variable-cross-section pipe
• § 14. Converging Lens & Light Wavefront Focusing · Transformation of a plane light wavefront into a converging spherical wavefront
• § 15. Lorentz Force & 3D Cyclotron Helix · Helical trajectory of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field B
• § 16. Faraday's Law & Lenz's Rule in 3D · Generation of induced current in a coil by a moving magnet & Lenz's rule
• § 17. Elliptical Orbit & Kepler's Second Law · Elliptical planetary orbit, equal-area sweep rate & orbital energy exchange
• § 18. Moment of Inertia & Rolling Kinetic Energy · Race between a solid cylinder and a hollow hoop rolling without slipping
• § 19. Standing Waves & String Overtones in 3D · Normal modes of a fixed string, nodes & antinodes, and frequency vs. tension
• § 20. Doppler Effect & Wavefront Deformation · Compression of wavefront crests ahead of a moving source, frequency shift & Mach cone
• § 21. Light Wavefront Polarization & Malus's Law · Transmission of a linearly polarized light wavefront through a polarizer and rotatable analyzer
• § 22. Single-Slit Wavefront Diffraction in 3D · Wavefront spreading through a narrow slit, Huygens wavelets & sinc²(β) intensity profile
• § 23. Ideal Heat Engine & Carnot Cycle in 3D · Conversion of heater heat Q₁ into mechanical piston work A and heat rejection Q₂ to the cold sink
• § 24. Motion of a Sphere in a Viscous Fluid (Stokes' Law) · Sphere falling through viscous oil, Stokes drag force & approach to terminal velocity
• § 25. Coulomb's Law & 3D Electric Dipole Field · 3D electric field lines of two point charges, Coulomb force & test charge motion
• § 26. Electromagnetic Oscillations in an LC / RLC Circuit · Free electromagnetic oscillations between capacitor C and inductor coil L, Thomson period
• § 27. Atwood's Machine: Dynamics of Connected Masses & Pulley Inertia · Motion of two masses on a thread over a pulley with moment of inertia, thread tension
• § 28. Coriolis Force & Motion in a Rotating Reference Frame · Trajectory deflection of a body moving on a rotating platform, inertial forces
• § 29. Hooke's Law in Differential Form & Young's Modulus · Elastic uniaxial tension of a rod, mechanical stress σ, strain ε, and Poisson necking
• § 30. Torricelli's Theorem & Hydrodynamic Efflux of a Liquid Jet · Efflux speed v = √(2gh) from a vessel orifice and parabolic jet range X = 2√(h·y₀)
• § 31. Maxwell's Law of Molecular Speed Distribution in an Ideal Gas · Statistical distribution f(v), most probable speed vₚ, mean ⟨v⟩, and RMS speed vᵣms
• § 32. Newton's Rings: Interference in a Thin Air Wedge & Half-Wave Phase Shift · Concentric interference rings in the air wedge between a plano-convex lens and flat glass plate
• § 33. External Photoelectric Effect: Einstein's Equation & Stopping Potential · Quantum emission of photoelectrons, work function A_w, red limit λₘax, and stopping voltage Uₛtop
• § 34. Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment & Planetary Model of the Atom · Hyperbolic trajectories in the Coulomb field of a heavy nucleus, impact parameter b, and scattering angle θ
• § 35. Magnetic Interaction of Parallel Currents & Definition of the Ampere · Magnetic interaction of two parallel conductors carrying currents I₁ and I₂, attraction vs. repulsion
• § 36. The Hall Effect: Transverse Potential Difference & Carrier Sign Determination · Lorentz deflection of charge carriers in a slab with current I in magnetic field B, n-type vs. p-type
• § 37. Coupled Pendulums: Normal Modes & Energy Beats · Periodic exchange of mechanical energy between two pendulums coupled by a spring
• § 38. Gyroscopic Precession of a Heavy Symmetric Top · Precession of spin angular momentum L around the vertical axis under gravitational torque M = [r × mg]
• § 39. Magnus Effect & Lift Force on a Rotating Cylinder · Transverse lift force F_M on a rotating cylinder in a uniform flow due to velocity circulation Γ
• § 40. Surface Tension, Meniscus Curvature & Capillary Action · Laplace pressure jump ΔP = 2σ cos θ / r under a concave or convex meniscus and equilibrium column height h
• § 41. Brownian Motion & Einstein–Smoluchowski Diffusion · Random walk trajectory of a suspended microparticle under molecular impacts and linear growth of mean-square displacement ⟨r²⟩ = 6Dt
• § 42. Michelson Interferometer & Phase Shift of Beams · Division of a coherent laser beam by a beam splitter into two orthogonal arms L₁, L₂ and fringe shift under mirror displacement Δd
• § 43. Compton Scattering & Relativistic Photon Momentum · Elastic collision of an X-ray photon with a free electron, wavelength shift Δλ = λ_C (1 − cos θ), and recoil momentum
• § 44. Bohr Atom Model, de Broglie Standing Waves & Spectral Series · Quantization of angular momentum Lₙ = nℏ, de Broglie standing waves 2πrₙ = nλ_dB, and Rydberg spectral transitions
• § 45. Biot–Savart Law & Uniform Field of Helmholtz Coils · Axial magnetic induction B(x) of circular current loops and generation of a uniform field plateau between Helmholtz coils
• § 46. AC Transformer & Mutual Electromagnetic Induction · Mutual electromagnetic induction via shared alternating magnetic flux Φ(t) in a ferromagnetic core and turns ratio U₂/U₁ = N₂/N₁
• § C-1 Atomic Electron Shells & 3D Quantum Orbitals (s, p, d) · Schrödinger wavefunction |ψ|², quantum numbers n, l & nodal surfaces
• § C-2 Orbital Hybridization & 3D Molecular Geometry (VSEPR) · Linear sp (180°), trigonal planar sp² (120°), tetrahedral sp³ (109.5°) & lone pairs
• § C-3 Ionic Crystal Lattice & Lattice Energy (NaCl) · Rock-salt unit cell, Madelung constant, lattice energy & thermal phonons
• § C-4 Avogadro’s Law, Molar Volume & the Ideal Gas Equation · Molar volume Vₘ = 22.4 L/mol (STP), amount of substance ν & PV = νRT
• § C-5 Chemical Reaction Rate, Activation Energy & Catalysis · Active molecular collisions, Arrhenius equation k = A·exp(−Eₐ/RT) & catalytic pathway
• § C-6 Chemical Equilibrium & Le Chatelier’s Principle (N₂O₄ ⇄ 2NO₂) · Dynamic equilibrium N₂O₄ ⇄ 2NO₂, equilibrium constant Kₚ & shifts under T and P
• § C-7 Acid–Base Titration, pH Curve & Visual Indicators · Neutralization curve HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O, equivalence point & steep pH jump
• § C-8 Daniell–Jacobi Galvanic Cell & Electrode Potentials · Anodic oxidation Zn⁰ → Zn²⁺ + 2e⁻, cathodic reduction Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu⁰ & salt bridge
• § C-9 Electrolytic Cell & Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis · Cathodic copper plating, anodic O₂↑ evolution & mass law m = (M·I·t)/(z·F)
• § C-10 Benzene Structure C₆H₆, Aromaticity & Delocalized π-Bonding · Planar hexagonal σ-ring (120°), delocalized 6π electron torus & resonance stabilization
• § C-11 Periodic Table of Elements (118 Elements): Atomic Radius rₐt, Ionization I₁ & χ · Complete 3D Periodic Table of all 118 chemical elements (Periods 1–7, Groups 1–18, s-, p-, d-, and f-blocks: Lanthanides & Actinides), atomic radius rₐt, ionization energy I₁ & electronegativity χ
• § C-12 Hydrogen Bonding, Hexagonal Ice Iₕ Lattice & Density Anomaly of Water · Tetrahedral O–H···O hydrogen-bond cage in hexagonal ice Iₕ (ρ = 0.917 g/cm³) and maximum density of liquid water at +4 °C
• § C-13 Thermochemistry, Hess’s Law & Calorimetric Enthalpy Determination ΔH · Measuring heat effects of exo- and endothermic reactions Q = (m·c + C_cal)ΔT = −ν·ΔH and Hess’s Law enthalpy diagram
• § C-14 Osmotic Pressure (van ’t Hoff’s Law Π = iCRT) & Semipermeable Membrane · Selective solvent diffusion across a semipermeable membrane in a U-tube osmometer, van ’t Hoff factor i, and reverse osmosis desalination
• § C-15 Buffer Solutions, Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation & Buffer Capacity · Comparing pH stability of an acetate buffer (CH₃COOH + CH₃COONa) against unbuffered water upon addition of strong acid HCl or base NaOH
• § C-16 Solubility Product Kₛp, Golden Rain Precipitation (PbI₂↓) & Common-Ion Effect · Crystallization of shimmering golden hexagonal PbI₂↓ platelets when Qₛp > Kₛp(T) and solubility suppression by excess I⁻ ions
• § C-17 Optical Spectrophotometry & the Beer–Lambert Law (A = ε·l·C) · Monochromatic light attenuation through a colored solution in a quartz cuvette, optical absorbance A = ε(λ)lC, and transmittance T = 10⁻ᴬ
• § C-18 Hydrogen–Oxygen Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) · Direct electrochemical conversion of 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O into electrical power across a proton-exchange membrane with Pt catalyst electrodes
• § C-19 Stereochemistry: Geometric (cis–trans, Z/E) & Chiral Optical Isomerism (R/S) · Comparing dipole polarity of cis/trans alkene isomers and optical rotation of plane-polarized light by chiral R/S-enantiomers
• § C-20 Radical Polymerization of Ethylene & Polyethylene Chain Growth · Chain-growth polymerization n CH₂=CH₂ → (–CH₂–CH₂–)ₙ, sp² → sp³ hybridization shift, molar mass Mₙ, and coil radius R_g
• § C-21 Molecular Orbitals (LCAO–MO): Bonding σ/π, Antibonding σ*/π* & Bond Order · Wavefunction interference (ψ_A ± ψ_B), bonding σ/π & antibonding σ*/π* orbitals, bond order, and paramagnetism of O₂
• § C-22 Carbon Nanostructures & Allotropes: Buckminsterfullerene C₆₀, Nanotubes & Graphene · sp² π-electron delocalization, Euler’s polyhedron theorem (12 pentagons + 20 hexagons), and nanotube chirality
• § C-23 Coordination Complexes & Crystal Field Theory (d-Orbital Splitting Δₒ) · Octahedral [ML₆]ⁿ⁺ vs. tetrahedral [ML₄]ⁿ⁺ complexes, t₂g / e_g splitting (Δₒ), spectrochemical series, and color
• § C-24 Born–Haber Thermodynamic Cycle & Ionic Lattice Energy U_L · Thermodynamic balance of sublimation, dissociation, ionization, electron affinity, and ionic lattice energy Uₗat
• § C-25 Electronegativity, Bond Polarity & Molecular Dipole Moment Vector μ · Partial charges δ⁺/δ⁻, vector addition of bond dipoles, and molecular torque in an electric field E
• § C-26 Phase Diagrams P–T, Triple Point, Critical Point & Supercritical Fluid · Clausius–Clapeyron equation, dry ice CO₂ sublimation, triple point, and supercritical state
• § C-27 Reaction Orders (0th, 1st & 2nd Order), Rate Laws & Half-Life t₁/₂ · Integrated rate laws of zero, first, and second order reactions and scaling of half-life t₁/₂
• § C-28 Enzyme Catalysis, Michaelis–Menten Kinetics & Active-Site Inhibition · Enzyme–substrate complex ES, lock-and-key active site, Vₘax, K_M, and competitive inhibition
• § C-29 Gibbs Free Energy ΔG = ΔH − TΔS, Entropy & Reaction Spontaneity · Competition between enthalpy ΔH and entropy TΔS, inversion temperature T* = ΔH/ΔS, and equilibrium K
• § C-30 Industrial Ammonia Synthesis (Haber–Bosch Process): N₂ + 3H₂ ⇄ 2NH₃ · Thermodynamic yield vs. kinetic rate trade-off at high pressure P, 450 °C, and promoted Fe catalyst
• § C-31 Raoult’s Law & Colligative Properties: Ebullioscopy ΔT_b & Cryoscopy ΔT_f · Chapter XXXI. Vapor Pressure Lowering ΔP = χ₂P°, Boiling Point Elevation & Freezing Point Depression
• § C-32 Chromatography (TLC & Column): Partition Coefficient K_d & Retention Factor R_f · Chapter XXXII. Stationary Silica Gel vs. Mobile Eluent Phase & Mixture Separation of Plant Pigments
• § C-33 Surface Adsorption & the Langmuir Isotherm: θ = K·P / (1 + K·P) · Chapter XXXIII. Dynamic Adsorption–Desorption Equilibrium on Activated Carbon & Monolayer Saturation
• § C-34 Colloidal Systems, Micelle Structure, Tyndall Cone & Schulze–Hardy Coagulation · Chapter XXXIV. Rayleigh Light Scattering (I ∝ d⁶/λ⁴), Zeta Potential ζ & Coagulation by Multivalent Ions (z⁶)
• § C-35 Salt Hydrolysis in Aqueous Solution: Kₕ = K_w / Kₐ, Degree h & Medium pH · Chapter XXXV. Proton Exchange of Weak-Acid Anions (CH₃COO⁻, CO₃²⁻) & Weak-Base Cations (NH₄⁺, Al³⁺)
• § C-36 Electrochemical Corrosion of Metals & Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection · Chapter XXXVI. Microgalvanic Cells (Fe | Zn vs. Fe | Cu), Oxygen Depolarization & Rust Formation
• § C-37 Lithium-Ion Battery (Rocking-Chair Intercalation): LiC₆ + CoO₂ ⇄ C₆ + LiCoO₂ · Chapter XXXVII. Li⁺ Intercalation Between Graphite Layers & Transition-Metal Oxide Octahedra at 3.7 V
• § C-38 Bimolecular Nucleophilic Substitution (S_N2) & Walden Inversion of Configuration · Chapter XXXVIII. Backside Attack HO⁻ + CH₃Br → [HO···CH₃···Br]‡ → CH₃OH + Br⁻ & Pentacoordinate Transition State
• § C-39 Fischer Esterification & Isotopic ¹⁸O Tracer: R–COOH + R′–¹⁸OH ⇄ R–CO–¹⁸OR′ + H₂O · Chapter XXXIX. Acid-Catalyzed Acyl Substitution, Equilibrium Constant Kₑq ≈ 4.0 & Dean–Stark Water Removal
• § C-40 Biopolymers: Peptide Bond Planarity, Protein α-Helix & DNA Double Helix (A=T, G≡C) · Chapter XL. Pauling–Corey α-Helix (3.6 res/turn) vs. Watson–Crick B-DNA, Chargaff’s Rules & Melting Tₘ
• § B-01 Eukaryotic Cell Architecture: Organelle Compartmentalization & S/V Scaling Limit · Nucleus, Mitochondria, Rough/Smooth ER, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes & Surface-to-Volume Ratio S/V = 3/R
• § B-02 Mitchell’s Chemiosmotic Theory: Proton-Motive Force Δp & Rotary ATP Synthesis · Electron Transport Chain (Complexes I–IV), Proton-Motive Force Δp & Rotary F₀F₁-ATP Synthase
• § B-03 Mitotic Cell Division: Spindle Microtubule Mechanics & Ploidy Conservation · Prophase, Metaphase Plate, Anaphase Sister Chromatid Separation & Telophase (2n → 2n)
• § B-04 Semiconservative DNA Replication: Replication Fork Mechanics & Meselson–Stahl Experiment · Helicase, DNA Polymerase III, 5′→3′ Synthesis, Continuous Leading Strand & Lagging Okazaki Fragments
• § B-05 Gene Expression & Translation: Ribosomal mRNA Decoding & Polypeptide Elongation · Central Dogma DNA → mRNA → Protein, Triplet Genetic Code, Ribosomal A–P–E Sites & tRNA Decoding
• § B-06 Mendelian Genetics & Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium: Genotype Frequency Dynamics · Punnett Square, 3:1 & 9:3:3:1 Segregation Ratios & Population Allele Equilibrium p² + 2pq + q² = 1
• § B-07 Plasma Membrane Biophysics: Electrogenic Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase Pump & Resting Potential · Singer–Nicolson Fluid Mosaic Model, Active 3Na⁺/2K⁺ Transport & Nernst–Goldman Potential
• § B-08 Action Potential Propagation: Hodgkin–Huxley Spike & Saltatory Conduction · Hodgkin–Huxley Model, Na⁺ Depolarization, K⁺ Repolarization, Myelin Sheath & Nodes of Ranvier
• § B-09 Biomechanics of Muscle Contraction: Sliding Filament Sarcomere & Hill’s Equation · Huxley Sliding Filaments (Actin & Myosin), Ca²⁺-Troponin Gating & Hill’s Force–Velocity Hyperbola
• § B-10 Chloroplast Photosynthesis: Z-Scheme Electron Transport & Calvin Cycle CO₂ Fixation · Thylakoid Light Reactions (PSII, Water Photolysis, PSI) & Stroma Calvin Cycle (RuBisCO)
• § B-11 Oxygen Transport by Hemoglobin: Allosteric Cooperativity (T ↔ R) & the Bohr Effect · α₂β₂ Tetramer with 4 Fe²⁺ Hemes, Cooperative Hill Sigmoid (n ≈ 2.8), Myoglobin & Bohr Shift
• § B-12 Ecosystem Dynamics: Lotka–Volterra Predator–Prey Oscillations & Trophic Energy Transfer · Predator–Prey Differential Equations, Phase-Space Attractor, Population Waves & Lindeman’s 10% Pyramid
• § B-13 Meiotic Cell Division: Bivalent Synapsis, Crossing-Over & Combinatorial Diversity · Prophase I Synapsis, Bivalents, Chiasmata, Homologous Recombination & Haploid Gametes (1n1c)
• § B-14 Biophysics of Vision: Optical Power of the Eye, Lens Accommodation & Spectacle Correction · Corneal & Crystalline Lens Refraction, Ciliary Accommodation Reflex, Myopia & Hyperopia Correction
• § B-15 Chemical Synapse: Calcium-Triggered Vesicle Exocytosis & Postsynaptic Ionotropic Receptors · Voltage-Gated Ca²⁺ Influx, SNARE Vesicle Exocytosis, Synaptic Cleft Diffusion & EPSP / IPSP Potentials
• § B-16 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Thermal Cycling & Exponential DNA Amplification · Thermal Cycler: Denaturation (95 °C), Primer Annealing (58 °C), Taq Extension (72 °C) & 2ⁿ Amplification
• § B-17 CRISPR–Cas9 System: Programmable Target DNA Recognition & Precision Genome Editing · PAM Motif Recognition (5′-NGG-3′), Guide sgRNA R-Loop, HNH/RuvC Nuclease Domains & HDR Repair
• § B-18 Bacteriophage T4 Structure & Lytic Cycle: Biomechanical Syringe & Viral DNA Injection · Icosahedral Capsid, Tail Fiber Receptor Binding, Contractile Sheath & High-Pressure Genome Injection
• § B-19 Cardiovascular Biophysics: Laminar Blood Flow & Hagen–Poiseuille Fourth-Power Law (Q ∝ R⁴) · Parabolic Erythrocyte Velocity Profile, Fourth-Power Radius Law (Q ∝ R⁴), Viscosity & Stenosis
• § B-20 DNA Gel Electrophoresis: Size-Dependent Separation of Restriction Fragments in a Polymer Matrix · Polyanion Migration to Anode (+), Agarose Molecular Sieving & Logarithmic Base-Pair Calibration

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• Email: contact@sheua.com
• Website: https://physics.sheua.com